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Moral relativism is an important topic in metaethics. It is also widely discussed outside philosophy for example, by political and religious leadersand it is controversial among philosophers and nonphilosophers alike. Though many philosophers are quite critical of moral relativism, diversity thesis philosophy, there are several contemporary philosophers who defend forms of it.
These include such prominent figures as Gilbert Harman, Jesse J. Prinz, J, diversity thesis philosophy. David Velleman and David B. Most often it is associated with an diversity thesis philosophy thesis that there are deep and widespread moral disagreements and a metaethical thesis that the truth or justification of moral judgments is not absolute, but relative to the moral standard of some person or group of persons.
Though moral relativism did not become a diversity thesis philosophy topic in philosophy or elsewhere until the twentieth century, diversity thesis philosophy, it has ancient origins. In the classical Greek world, both the historian Herodotus and the sophist Protagoras appeared to endorse some form of relativism the latter attracted the attention of Plato in the Theaetetus.
It should also be noted that the ancient Chinese Daoist philosopher Zhuangzi put forward a nonobjectivist view diversity thesis philosophy is sometimes interpreted as a kind of relativism. Among the ancient Greek philosophers, moral diversity was widely acknowledged, but the more common nonobjectivist reaction was moral skepticism, the view that there is no moral knowledge the position of the Pyrrhonian skeptic Sextus Empiricusrather than moral relativism, the view that moral truth or justification is relative to a culture or society.
This pattern continued through most of the history of Western philosophy, diversity thesis philosophy. These discussions pertained to moral objectivity, but moral relativism as a thesis explicitly distinguished from moral skepticism ordinarily was not in focus.
Prior to the twentieth century, moral philosophers did not generally feel obliged to defend a position on moral relativism. Nonetheless, the increased awareness of moral diversity especially between Diversity thesis philosophy and non-Western cultures on the part of Europeans in the modern era is an important antecedent to the contemporary concern with moral relativism.
During this time, the predominant view among Europeans and their colonial progeny was that their moral values were superior to the moral values of other cultures.
Few thought all moral values had equal or relative validity, or anything of that sort. The main impetus for such a position came from cultural anthropology. At the beginning anthropologists accepted the assumption of European or Western superiority.
But this assumption began to be challenged in the twentieth century, especially by some social scientists in the United States. An early dissent came from the sociologist William Graham Sumner, who proposed a version of moral relativism in his Folkways, diversity thesis philosophy.
But the most influential challenge originated with the anthropologist Franz Boas. He and his students—in particular, Ruth Benedict, Melville J. Herskovits, and Margaret Mead—explicitly articulated influential forms of moral relativism in the first half of the twentieth century, diversity thesis philosophy. Inon the occasion of the United Nations debate about universal human rights, diversity thesis philosophy, the American Anthropological Association issued a statement declaring that moral values are relative to cultures and that there is no way of showing that the values of one culture are better than those of another.
Anthropologists have never been unanimous in asserting this, and more recently human rights advocacy on the part of some anthropologists has mitigated the relativist orientation of the discipline. Nonetheless, prominent anthropologists such as Richard A. Shweder and the late Clifford Geertz have defended relativist positions in recent years.
An important early bridge from anthropology to philosophy was established by Edward Westermarck —8 anda social scientist who wrote anthropological and philosophical works defending forms of empirical as well as metaethical moral relativism. In the latter half of the 20th century, moral philosophers began devoting considerable attention to moral relativism and some—most notably Richard B, diversity thesis philosophy.
Brandt and John Ladd —took quite seriously the empirical effort of anthropology to understand the moralities of different cultures, to diversity thesis philosophy point of making such empirical inquiries themselves an anticipation of the recent emphasis on experimental philosophy, to be discussed in section 3.
In the past several decades there has been increasing consideration of moral relativism, and there is now an diversity thesis philosophy literature on the subject the Bibliography below is very limited. For example, there is considerable work on moral relativism in diversity thesis philosophy with human rights Donnellypart 2 and Okinpolitical philosophy AccettiBilgrami and Long and feminist philosophy Code and Khader There are also discussions of moral relativism in applied fields such as medical ethics Earp For example, in anthropology it sometimes connotes, among other things, the rather uncontroversial notion that anthropologists should strive to be impartial and unprejudiced in their empirical inquires.
The empirical position is usually:. Sometimes what is emphasized is moral diversity rather than strict disagreement. DMR is often thought to have been established by anthropology and other empirical disciplines. However, it is not uncontroversial: Empirical as well as philosophical objections have been raised against it.
Hence, it is one focal point of debate. The metaethical position usually concerns the truth or justification of moral judgments, and it has been given somewhat different definitions. Metaethical relativists generally suppose that many fundamental moral disagreements cannot be rationally resolved, and on this basis they argue that moral judgments lack the moral authority or normative force that moral objectivists usually contend these judgments may have.
Hence, diversity thesis philosophy, metaethical relativism is in part a negative thesis that challenges the claims of moral objectivists. However, it often involves a positive thesis as well, diversity thesis philosophy, namely that moral judgments nonetheless have moral authority or normative force, not absolutely or universally as objectivists contendbut relative to some group of persons such as a society or culture.
This point is typically made with respect to truth or justification or bothand the following definition will be a useful reference point:. It is not true, or false, simply speaking. Likewise, with respect to justification, this judgment may be justified in one society, diversity thesis philosophy, but not another.
Taken in one way, this last point is uncontroversial: The people in one society may have different evidence available to them diversity thesis philosophy the people in the other society. But proponents of MMR usually have something stronger and more provocative in mind: That the standards of justification in the two societies may differ from one another and that there is no rational basis for resolving these differences.
This is why the justification of moral judgments is relative rather than absolute. In recent years, there has been a proliferation of different formulations of relativism for discussion of some of these, see FrickerKrausz and López de Sa It is important to note several distinctions that may be made in formulating different metaethical relativist positions.
First, a distinction is sometimes drawn between content relativism, the view that sentences may have different contents meanings in different frameworks, and truth relativism, diversity thesis philosophy, the view that sentences have the same content in different frameworks, but their truth-value may vary across these frameworks for a discussion of this distinction in terms of moral relativism, diversity thesis philosophy, see Prinz —3.
In the discussions that follow, truth relativism is ordinarily assumed. Second, it is sometimes said that the truth or justification of moral judgments may be relative to an individual person as well as a group of persons. In this article, the latter will be assumed, as in the definition of MMRunless otherwise noted. Third, that to which truth or justification is relative may be the persons making the moral diversity thesis philosophy or the persons about whom the judgments are made.
These are sometimes called appraiser and agent relativism respectively. Appraiser relativism suggests that we do or should make moral judgments on the basis of our own standards, while agent relativism implies that the relevant standards are those of the persons we are judging diversity thesis philosophy course, in some cases these may coincide. Appraiser relativism is the more common position, and it will usually be assumed in the discussion that follows. Finally, MMR may be offered as the best explanation of what people already believe, or it may be put forward as a position people ought to accept regardless of what they now believe.
There will be diversity thesis philosophy to discuss both claims below, though the latter is probably the more common one, diversity thesis philosophy. Metaethical moral relativist positions are typically contrasted with moral objectivism. Let us say that moral objectivism maintains that moral judgments are ordinarily true or false in an absolute or universal sense, that some of them are true, and that people sometimes are justified in accepting true moral judgments and rejecting false ones on the basis of evidence available to any reasonable and diversity thesis philosophy person.
There are different ways of challenging moral objectivism. Moral skepticism says that we are never justified in accepting or rejecting moral judgments.
Other views—variously called moral non-cognitivism, expressivism, anti-realism, diversity thesis philosophy, nihilism, etc. MMR is often distinguished from all of these views: Instead of denying truth-value or justification, it affirms relative forms of these.
However, metaethical moral relativist views are sometimes regarded as connected with positions that say moral judgments lack truth-value, since the relativist views contend that moral judgments lack truth-value in an absolute diversity thesis philosophy universal sense.
This is sometimes simply a question of terminology, but not always. If it is said that moral judgments lack truth-value beyond the claim of minimalismthen there cannot be relative truth-value in the sense that moral relativists usually intend though it might be contended that there is a sense in which there could still be justification. As will be seen below, there is a debate about the relationship diversity thesis philosophy MMR and non-cognitivist or expressivist positions.
Most arguments for MMR are based on DMR and the contention that it is implausible to suppose fundamental moral disagreements can always be resolved rationally for overviews of these arguments, see Plakias and Seipel b.
Sometimes it is said that some moral disagreements are faultless, meaning that neither party has made a mistake see Kölbel For instance, HarmanPrinz and Wong and have all stressed the importance of moral disagreements in arguing for MMRand such arguments will be considered in some detail in subsequent sections.
However, some arguments diversity thesis philosophy MMR have a rather different approach, and two of these should be noted here. First, MMR might be defended as a consequence of the general relativist thesis that the truth or justification of all judgments is not absolute or universal, but relative to some group of persons. For example, this general position might be maintained on the ground that each society has its own conceptual framework and that conceptual frameworks are incommensurable with one another.
Hence, we can only speak of truth or justification in relative terms see the discussion of incommensurability in the Summer archived version of the entry on relativism section 4. This position might be thought to have the diversity thesis philosophy that it can only diversity thesis philosophy put forward as true or justified relative to some conceptual framework the suggestion is usually that this framework is our ownand many find it implausible with regard to common sense judgments and judgments in the natural sciences.
However, this is one avenue to MMR. But most proponents of MMR focus on distinctive features of morality and reject general relativism. In fact, they often contrast morality and science with respect to issues of truth and justification.
For example, Harman bPrinz and Wong and all associate moral relativism with naturalism, a position that usually presupposes the objectivity of the natural sciences. Second, a metaethical moral relativist position might be defended by emphasizing aspects of morality other than disagreement. For example, Rovane and has maintained that relativism is best understood, not as a response to disagreement, but as a response to alternative conceptual schemes that portray different worlds that are normatively insulated from one another.
On this account, the truth-bearers in one world are not logically related to the truth-bearers in another world so there cannot be strict disagreementand yet it is not possible to embrace both worlds so they are alternatives. Rovane argues that in the moral domain, but not in the domain of the natural sciences, there may be different worlds in this sense.
Hence, a moral judgment may be true for the occupant of one world, but not for the occupant of another. An implication of this view, she says, is that learning and teaching across different moral worlds might not be possible.
In a partially similar view, Velleman has claimed, on the basis of ethnographic and historical data, that different communities construct available action types differently. Moreover, reasons for action are always dependent on the perspective of the particular community since they arise out of the diversity thesis philosophy for mutual interpretability needed for social life within the community.
Hence, there are no perspective-independent reasons. There cannot be straight-forward disagreement across these communities because they do not have common sets of action types. The communities may nonetheless address the basic themes of morality, but in incompatible ways given their different perspectives.
So moralities can only have local validity. Both Rovane diversity thesis philosophy Velleman stress moral diversity rather than moral disagreement. They maintain, diversity thesis philosophy, not that disagreements cannot be rationally resolved, but that there is no basis for showing that, among various incompatible alternatives, one is rationally superior to another.
In addition, it is worth noting that MMR is sometimes justified by appealing in a significant way to a distinctive analysis of moral judgments in combination with a claim about moral disagreement.
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, time: 4:12What is descriptive cultural relativism?
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